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IntroductionThe storage and distribution of various gases including liquefied natural gas (LNG) requires materials that have good mechanical properties, particularly toughness, at low temperatures. Gases are generally stored as liquids at low pressure and this requires that the materials used for storage tanks and pipework are capable of withstanding the low temperatures encountered with liquefied gases. Some examples of the liquefaction temperatures of various gases are shown in Table 1.The most important criterion for service at cryogenic temperatures is normally toughness, and it is important that the weld metals used are capable of achieving good toughness. Large land based storage tanks are normally fabricated from 9% nickel steel but pipework for distribution etc is often made from austenitic stainless steel.
The 9% nickel steels and 304/316 austenitic stainless steel consumables are tested down to -196°C (-320°F). For applications down to -269°C (-452°F), 304/316 austenitic stainless steel (welded with fully austenitic stainless steel consumables) or aluminium are used.
The materials and welding consumables suitable for use at various nominal temperatures are shown in Table 2. MaterialsAs explained already, many different alloys are selected for LNG applications.
This paper covers austenitic stainless steels, 304/304L and 316/316L, and the relevant weld metals 308L and 316L 1-6. The use of fully austenitic weld metals (eg. BS EN 18 15 3 L types) is not covered here, although these fully austenitic weld metals have excellent toughness at -196°C (-320°F) and useful properties down to -269°C (-452°F). The paper is divided into four main areas:.
typical toughness requirements, the effect of different welding processes on toughness,. how weld metals achieve the required toughness. and, finally, the effect of weld procedure. 4.1 Gas-Shielded ProcessesThe gas-shielded welding processes– gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) / tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding and gas metal arc welding (GMAW) / metal inert gas (MIG) welding - produce inherently good toughness even at cryogenic temperatures. The gas shielding provides a metallurgically clean weld metal with low oxygen, hence low non-metallic inclusion content.The GTAW process in conjunction with ER308L (W 19 9 L) or ER316L (W 19 12 3 L) wire produces the cleanest weld metal and exceptional toughness even at -196°C (-320°F). Experience has shown that with both ER308L and ER316L wires it is possible to achieve typically 80J (60ft-lb) at -196°C (-320°F) and a lateral expansion of 1.0mm (0.040inch), when using the argon shielded GTAW process.
4.2 Flux-Shielded ProcessesThe three flux shielded processes – shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) / manual metal arc (MMA) welding, flux cored arc welding (FCAW) and submerged arc welding (SAW) – do not achieve such low oxygen content, low inclusion content weld metal, and hence give lower impact properties than the gas-shielded processes. If consistently satisfactory toughness is required at -196°C (-320°F), it is invariably necessary to provide careful control of the welding consumable because standard commercial SMAW electrodes and FCAW wires will not reliably achieve 0.38mm (0.015inch) lateral expansion at -196°C (-320°F). Note that the FCAW process referred to is not the gasless ‘self-shielded’ type, since ingress of air and pickup of nitrogen by the weld metal must be minimised to avoid unnecessary degradation of properties, but is the gas shielded FCAW process which is shielded by both a shielding gas and a slag cover. The controls required to ensure good toughness are discussed further in the next section.
Controls Required for SMAW ElectrodesAs already discussed in Section 4, the gas shielded processes do not require any special controls to achieve 0.38mm (0.015inch) lateral expansion at -196°C (-320°F). With the flux shielded processes, controls are required to produce 308L/316L consumables capable of achieving good cryogenic toughness. Three areas in particular will be covered:. ferrite content.
alloy control. type of fluxThe discussion and data presented in Sections 5.1 and 5.2 concentrates on the SMAW process but the information presented is equally applicable to FCAW as will be seen in Section 6. 5.1 FerriteVarious standards specify ferrite limits for austenitic stainless steels. For example, ASME III 9 requires 5FN minimum, or 3-10FN for service above 427°C (800°F); and API 582 10 has 3FN minimum (although it is noted that for cryogenic service lower FN may be required).
It has been found that it is possible to achieve the 0.38mm (0.015inch) lateral expansion requirement by controlling weld metal ferrite of SMAW electrodes in the range 25FN. The effect of ferrite on toughness of E308L welds is well illustrated in Figure 1, which includes data from a variety of sources. The trends shown confirm those found by others in earlier work eg 11-13. As can be seen, the general trend is for the lateral expansion to decrease as ferrite increases, but beyond about 8FN the lateral expansion increases again, as seen for the E308L-16/17 series in Figure 1.
This increase in lateral expansion beyond about 8FN is believed to be due to a change in the ferrite morphology. The benefit o f controlling ferrite in the range 2-5FN is shown by the UM308LCF series in Figure 1, where all the points of 14FN gave lateral expansions in the range 0.4–0.7mm (0.016-0.028inch).A particular concern with austenitic consumables having low ferrite levels is the risk of solidification cracking or microfissuring. Most codes and specifications that specify a minimum ferrite do so to maximise resistance to hot cracking, and at a typical ferrite of 3FN the controlled ferrite (CF) consumables might be considered to be at risk. However, numerous weld procedures and projects have been carried out with the 308L and 316L controlled ferrite SMAW consumables described here, and no solidification cracking or microfissuring problems have eve r been encountered.
The reason for this is that despite the low ferrite, the composition is controlled to achieve a Cr:Ni ratio which produces a desirable primary ferrite solidification mode. The robust resistance to cracking can also be demonstrated by superimposing the controlled ferrite electrode composition range on the Suutala diagram, as shown for the 308LCF electrode in Figure 214. 5.2 Alloy ControlBy controlling the weld metal ferrite range to 2-5FN and simultaneously balancing the Cr:Ni equivalent ratio to eliminate any potential risk of hot cracking, the deposit composition of 308LCF and 316LCF electrodes becomes restricted to the ‘lean’ area of their respective weld metal specification ranges.
One consequence of this is that with the 316LCF types Mo is preferably controlled in the range 2.0 – 2.5%. This means that the 316LCF controlled ferrite SMAW electrode conforms to the AWS specification o f 2.0-2.5%Mo E316L-16 1, but not the EN specification E 19 12 3 L R 4 which requires 2.5 – 3.0% Mo. Although not reviewed here, excellent cryogenic toughness and resistance to hot cracking at low FN levels is also displayed by the ‘lean 316’ type 16.8.2 consumables 15. 5.3 Flux TypeWith CMn and low alloy steels, it is traditionally accepted that the best impact properties are achieved using SMAW electrodes with fully basic flux systems. With austenitic stainless steels the effect is less pronounced, although it has long been recognised and reported that electrodes with basic flux coverings such as ‘lime-fluorspar’ E3xx-15 types give somewhat better results than rutile E3xx-16/17 coverings 11 13.
The data for standard ‘general purpose’ E316L-15/16/17 and E316L-16CF are plotted for comparison in Figure 3. It can be seen that the basic type, E316L-15, electrodes gave significantly higher impact energy for a given lateral expansion (apparently a larger effect than reported by previous workers). Consequently, Figure 3 indicates that for E316L-16/17 electrodes a lateral expansion of 0.38mm (0.015inch) is assured by about 32J (24ft-lb), whereas E316L-15 electrodes require about 40J (30ftlb). What Figure 3 clearly shows is that the basic flux system alone is no guarantee of achieving 0.38mm (0.015inch) lateral expansion. By concluding that it is necessary to control both composition and ferrite content whatever flux type is used (E3XXL-15/16/17), the commercially manufactured controlled ferrite electrodes utilised a rutile flux system (E316L-16CF in Figure 3) to take advantage of the best operability and welder appeal. Flux Cored WiresThe experience gained over many years of manufacturing controlled ferrite SMAW electrodes has now been applied to flux cored wires.
The compositional and ferrite aims for the 308LCF and 316LCF flux cored wires are similar to the equivalent SMAW electrodes. This means that the wires conform to E308LT1-4 and E316LT1-4 with a ferrite aim of 25FN. As with the SMAW electrodes, the 316LCF flux cored wire conforms to the AWS specification E316LT1-4 3 but not necessarily to the EN specification T 19 12 3 L P 6.The wires are based on a rutile flux system suitable for all-positional pipe welding using standard Ar-20%CO 2 or 100%CO 2 shielding gas. The welding position and shielding gas have been shown to have very little influence on the Charpy properties o f all-weld metal joints; this is shown in Table 4 where tests carried out on the same batch of wire are given.As with the SMAW electrodes, ferrite also has a pronounced effect on the toughness of flux cored wire weld deposits at -196°C (-320°F). This is illustrated with average data for both standard 308L/316L and the new 308LCF/316LCF types in Figure 4. The toughness data is plotted separately for 308L and 316L in Figures 5a and 5b showing individual Charpy energy versus lateral expansion values at -196°C (-320°F) for standard wires and controlled ferrite wires. The benefits of the controlled ferrite type wires is very evident, with all of the data for the controlled ferrite types exceeding 0.38mm (0.015inch) lateral expansion at -196°C (-320°F).
As can be seen in Figure 5a, some of the results for standard 308L wires also reached the 0.38mm (0.015inch) lateral expansion requirement, but none except the 308LCF achieved 32J (24ft-lb) or 40J/cm 2. With the 316L flux cored wires the only results which meet the 0.38mm (0.015inch) requirement are those for the controlled ferrite wire. Weld ProcedureThe mechanical properties of austenitic stainless steel welds are not generally considered to be affected by welding procedure.
However, a series of three submerged arc welds was produced with heat inputs from 1.0 up to 2.7KJ/mm and these showed an increase in toughness with increasing heat input, Table 5. The improvement in Charpy properties with increasing heat input and reduced number of weld runs has been reported previously 16. The reason for the improvement in toughness is not certain, but it is suspected that the reduction in the number of runs deposited reduces the strain ageing effect and hence improves the impact properties. Solid wire is usually specified for the SAW process, so there is much less scope for the kinds of alloy control which allow SMAW and FCAW to be optimised for cryogenic toughness. Best results are likely to be obtained by the use of flux with no chromium compensation (to avoid excessive ferrite), coupled with attention to heat input as shown above. Higher flux basicity will support chromium transfer and thus higher ferrite but cleaner weld metal than more acid fluxes, and either approach probably has its protagonists.The beneficial effect of increased heat input can also be seen with SMAW electrodes. The larger diameter electrodes, on average, produce higher impact properties, Figure 6.
This could again be attributed to the larger diameter electrodes being deposited using a higher heat input hence producing larger weld beads with fewer runs per joint. The tests carried out to date have not shown the FCAW process to be so dependent on heat input or number of weld runs, see results in Table 4.
ApplicationsNumerous successful weld procedures have been carried out with the controlled ferrite SMAW electrodes, and many tonnes of electrodes have been used on projects all round the world. Most of the projects for which these electrodes were used were pipelines and process pipework; some examples are given here.The controlled ferrite UM316LCF SMAW electrode was originally designed over 12 years ago to satisfy the requirements of Mobil/Ralph M Parsons for the SAGE (Scottish Area Gas Evacuation) project terminal at St Fergus, Scotland. The plant, run by ExxonMobil, has now been processing gas for nearly twelve years. A number of weld procedures were completed covering different welding processes and pipe sizes, an example of a procedure qualification record (PQR) run for this project is shown in Figure 7. This procedure is for an ASME 6G / EN H-L045 joint in 200mm (8inch) diameter 23mm (0.9inch) wall thickness pipe completed with GTAW and SMAW.More recently tonnage quantities of the controlled ferrite SMAW consumables have been used in Kazakhstan on the Karachaganak Project where the contractors were CCC-Saipem. The controlled ferrite electrodes were used on 304/316 process pipework.
There have also been significant quantities of pipework welded with the controlled ferrite consumables on the Mesaieed Q-Chem petrochemical complex in Qatar. The contractors were Snamprogetti and the SMAW electrodes were used on the natural gas to liquids plant (NGL-4), which will produce ethane rich gas feedstock for the ethylene plant.The first commercial use of the flux cored wire was for the Isle of Grain LNG project in the UK, which also used the SMAW electrode. The SC308LCF controlled ferrite flux cored wire was used in conjunction with the STT GMAW process for the fabrication of a three mile long pipeline in 915mm (36inch) diameter, 10mm (0.4inch) wall thickness, 304 stainless steel.
The STT process, utilising ER308LSi solid wire, was used for the root run and the controlled ferrite flux cored wire for the filling and capping runs. ConclusionsThe data presented show that with appropriate controls it is possible to achieve good mechanical properties, particularly Charpy toughness, at -196°C (-320°F) using 308L and 316L welding consumables conforming to the relevant AWS-ASME specifications, and without resorting to fully austenitic weld metal. For the gas shielded processes, GTAW and GMAW, standard ER308L/ER316L wires can achieve the commonly specified requirement of 0.38mm (0.015inch) lateral expansion at -196°C (-320°F). For flux shielded processes, SMAW and FCAW, controls have to be imposed to meet 0.38mm (0.015inch) lateral expansion at -196°C (-320°F).Data is presented showing that when 308L/316L SMAW and FCAW consumables with rutile flux systems are made within controlled limits (particularly ferrite) they will meet the specified toughness requirement.Although most of the results presented are from all-weld metal tests, the successful use of the controlled ferrite (CF) SMAW and FCAW consumables is demonstrated by examples of some applications and projects for which they have been used.
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